Mayan Jungle History: Chichen Itza

Chichén Itzá, (pronounced, Cheechen eetZA) is perhaps the best known Mayan archaeological site on the Yucatan peninsula, Mexico, leading Palenque, in Chiapas, Mexico, Tikal in Guatemala and Copan in Honduras. Thought to be built on the site of a prior Mayan settlement, the city was at its height from around AD 980 to 1220, preceding the Toltecs from central Mexico, who settled here. Many ruins of important buildings remain from this time. These include the Castillo and other temples with sculptures and color reliefs, an observatory, and a sacred well (cenote), into which sacrifices, including human beings, were thrown.

History of Chichén Itzá

It is believed that Chichén Itzá was founded by the Putún Maya from the coastal region of the Gulf of Mexico in around 850 AD. Later the Toltec took over and they modeled many of the buildings to those of their former capital at Tula. Different styles of architecture are found in different Mayan regions, all based on the differences in culture and resources available for the establishment of the settlements. What you will find in Palenque will be very different from what you will find in Copan; just as the structure of architecture, design and layout will be different in Chichén Itzá from that in Tikal. Toltec rule ended when the city fell to Hunac Ceel, ruler of the neighbouring city-state of Mayapán, in 1221.

Upon the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, the site had long been abandoned and fallen into ruin, the Maya that build and used the pyramids never saw Spanish ships coming to the new land as Mel Gibson would like to think. One theory suggests that many of the Maya from the larger settlements, namely Chichén Itzá Palenque, Tikal and Copan, left and migrated deeper into the jungle. The reason for this is still unknown, but it is often suggested that lack agricultural resources was one of the causes.

It is interesting to note that the Mexican government established a highway that went right through the site in 1983, but for ecological, and not so much archaeological reasons, this part of the highway was closed, and a bypass was built north of the site. The hotels
on the east side can be reached by taking the bypass and then heading back toward the site (west) on the old section of Highway 180 that is still open for local traffic.

The site

Chichén Itzá has three main components that create the layout of the site:
(1) The North End structures, divided by the highway
(2) The South End structures divided by the highway
(3) "Old Chichén.": groups of structures even further south.

Architecture and Knowledge

A literary Tour of Chichén Itzá
There are two principal styles of public architecture at Chichén Itzá. The first is a local variant of the Puuc style found at sites in west-central Yucatán and northeastern Campeche. The other style, according to Peter J. Schmidt, "is partly derived from the same roots but is vastly enriched by elements and concepts from other parts of Mesoamerica, notably the Gulf Coast, Oaxaca, and central México". Early investigators of Chichén Itzá proposed that Puuc-style traits were "Maya" and the features of the "Toltec" style include serpent columns, Chac Mools, Atlantean figures, serpent heads at the top of alfardas, tzompontlis, and carvings of processions of warriors, among others, much like those found in Copan and Tikal.
Architecturally, this style embodies stepped pyramids dance platforms with stairs on all four sides, large columned porticoes, gallery-patio compounds, as well as other features.
While Mexican influence is clearly present at Chichén Itzá, Schmidt believes that "continuity of construction techniques, residential systems, and other features of daily life, such as ceramic vessel types, argue for the continued Maya character of Chichén Itzá, Tikal and Palenque."
The North End structures
Approaching from the west end of Chichén Itzá, El Castillo-also called the Temple of Kukulcán- towers over the region and is visible from afar. The pyramid was said to have been built in honor of Kukulcan, the serpent of agriculture. The Mayans of the region built it such that on the second equinox of the year a serpent would form created by the sun’s angle and perfect isosceles triangles casting its shadow…expressing the movement of a giant serpent of sun and shadow coming down the temple to fertilize the soils of Chichén Itzá.
Nearby El Castillo, a square-based stepped pyramid about 75 feet tall, stands crowned by a temple. It originally had stairways on all four sides; two of these have been restored. The visible structure covers a smaller, earlier one (of similar plan), and some interesting sculpture is found on the inside of the latter. The inner structure was discovered during excavation. A tunnel was cut into the outer structure, and a stairway was located, which is the entrance to the inner structure. The entrance is at the base of the north side of El Castillo, but the inner temple can be visited only during certain hours. Check as you enter the site, as the schedule is subject to change. Also, check on the open hours for the interior structure of the Temple of the Warriors and the painted chamber of the Temple of the Jaguars. The open hours of the three do not overlap; you can probably work all three into your schedule if you plan ahead.
Climbing the exterior of El Castillo is very pleasant for it offers delightful views of the north section of the site. This temple is composed of a pyramidal base rising in three tiers, with a temple on top, approached by a stairway on the west side. There is a large colonnade of stone pillars carved with figures of warriors at the base of the structure on the west side.
Upon getting to the entrance of the temple a Chac Mool and two beautifully carved serpent columns' at the rear and small Atlantean figures rest supporting an altar. The facade of the temple has sculptures depicting Chac, the Maya rain god. The Temple of the Warriors also had at least two construction phases. There is an earlier inner temple, with pillars sculptured in bas-relief, which retain much of their original color, and murals once adorned the walls of the inner structure. There are also a Chac Mool and the heads of serpent columns inside.
The other structure of interest in this area is the Mercado, or Market, on the south side of the courtyard, build on a slightly elevated platform, much like you would find in Palenque or Tikal, where the center of the urban developments always created a special place for commerce.
The Sacred Cenote is not a structure created by the Mayan of Chichén Itzá, but a natural formation created by an underground river system that continues to foster tropical growth on the Yucatan peninsula. Although natural, it may have been altered to achieve its nearly circular shape. It is worth noting the coincidence in relationship between the location of establishments -Palenque and Copan, to name a couple- and the existence of cenotes. There are several theories that explain the function and reverence paid to the mysterious “dznot” or hole (Mayan) in the ground. About 180 feet in diameter and sides, 80 feet in depth above the water level, the Sacred Cenote was apparently not used as a water supply but was reserved for rituals and human sacrifice involving the rain god. The notion that the sacrificed victims were all beautiful young virgins was disproved when human remains of young children and older adults, both male and female, were discovered. The Sacred Cenote is in a depression, and the surrounding dense vegetation cuts off most of the air. On a still day, the heavy atmosphere and buzzing insects can create a hypnotic effect, and one con easily imagine this as a place of human sacrifice. The remains of a small temple on the edge of the cenote are very similar to those found in Topoxte, Guatemala, somewhat near the area of Tikal.
Due north of the cenote is the Skull Rack, or Tzompantli. The sides are covered with bas-reliefs; some depict skulls in profile, except for the corners, where they are shown full face. Oddly enough, each is different from the other and appears to have its own personality. Other bas-reliefs show warriors in full regalia. Two Chac Mools were excavated from the platform.
To the west to the Great Ball Court, or Poctapoc, the largest in Mesoamerica' its walls measure 272 feet long, but the playing area extends some distance beyond. There are interesting bas-relief carvings on the lower walls of the ball court depicting ball game activities and ritual sacrifice. A small temple lies at each end of the ball court, and from in front of the north temple (the Temple of the Bearded Man) a person speaking in a natural voice reportedly can be heard at the other end of the court, about 150 yards away. What’s most interesting about this game is that the captain of the two opposing teams (shadow and light) was sacrificed. It is believed that they had a place within the neighboring structure of the Temple of Warriors.
There are two columns at the entrance to the one-room temple, and these, the interior walls, to the Temple of the Bearded Man are some remains of red paint, and this emphasizes the carvings. The larger temple at the south end of the ball court also has remains of columns with carvings, but the walls and vault surfaces are plain.
When you return to the plaza level, you can enter a chamber below the Temple of the Jaguars that faces east. It has polychrome bas-reliefs on pillars, walls, and vault in a good state of preservation and a simple three dimensional sculpture of a jaguar, possibly a throne.
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Great Pyramid of Giza

Great Pyramid of Giza~One Of The New 7 Wonders Of The WorldThe Great Pyramid of Giza is the oldest and largest of the three pyramids of Giza in the necropolis at the border, was today in Cairo, Egypt and Africa, and is the only remaining member of the Seven Wonders of the World. It is believed to have been built as a tomb for the Fourth Dynasty Egyptian Pharaoh Khufu (hellenized as Χεωψ, Cheops), and constructed over a 20 year period to 2560 BC closure. It is sometimes called Khufu's Pyramid or the Pyramid of Khufu.

Historical context

The Great Pyramid of Giza is the main part of a complex setting of buildings that included two mortuary temples in honor of Khufu (one close to the pyramid and one near the Nile), three smaller pyramids for Khufu's wives, an even smaller "satellite" pyramid, a raised causeway connecting the two temples, and small mastaba tombs surrounding the pyramid for nobles. One of the small pyramids contains the tomb of queen Hetepheres (discovered in 1925), sister and wife of Sneferu and the mother of Khufu. There was a town for the workers of Giza, including a cemetery, bakeries, a beer factory and a copper smelting complex. More buildings and complexes are being discovered by The Giza Mapping Project.

A few hundred metres south-west of the Great Pyramid is a bit smaller pyramid of Khafre, one of Khufu's successor, which is also commonly known as the builder of the Great Sphinx, and a few hundred metres further to the south-west is the Pyramid of Menkaure, Khafre's successor, which is about half as large.

The generally accepted estimated date of completion is c. 2560 BC. Although at this time in opposition to radiocarbon dating evidence, it is loosely supported by a lack of archaeological finds for the existence prior to the fourth dynasty of the civilization population, or with sufficient technical skills in the region.

Khufu's vizier, Hemon, or Hemiunu, is believed by some to be the architect of the Great Pyramid.

Construction theories

Materials and workforce

Many of the estimates were varied in terms of the workforce needed to build the Great Pyramid. Herodotus, the Greek historian in the 5th Century BC, estimated that the construction of any necessary 100000 workers over 20 years. Recent evidence has been found suggesting that the document was in fact paid, which would require accounting and bureaucratic skills of a high order. Polish architect Wieslaw Kozinski believed that as many as 20 men to carry a 1.5-ton stone block. On the basis of that, he estimated the workforce to 300,000 people on the site, with an additional 60000 off-site. 19th Century Egyptologist William Flinders Petrie suggested that the workforce was largely composed not of slaves, but by the Egyptian rural working population in times when the Nile flooded, and agricultural activity. Egyptologist Miroslav Verner postulated that the work was organized in a hierarchy, consisting of two gangs of 100,000 men, in five zaa or phyle of 20,000 men each, the May were further subdivided according to the abilities of employees. Some research results suggest alternative estimates for the staff accepted size. For example, mathematician Kurt Mendelssohn calculated that the workforce in May were 50,000 men at the most, while Ludwig Borchardt and Louis Croon, the number to 36,000. After Verner, a staff of no more than 30,000 was needed in the construction of the Great Pyramid.

A construction management study (test), the Company Daniel, Mann, Johnson & Mendenhall, in collaboration with Mark Lehner and other Egyptologists, estimates that the total cost of the project required an average workforce of 14567 persons and a maximum of 40,000 employees . Without the use of rollers, wheels, iron tools, or that they suspect the Great Pyramid was from beginning to end in about 10 years. Their critical path analysis study shows, estimates that the number of units under construction was between 2-2.8 million (2.4 million on average), but is aimed at a reduced completed a total of 2 million after deducting the estimated area of the voids the chambers and galleries. Most sources agree on this number of units somewhere over 2.3 million. The Egyptologist 'calculations suggest that workers had sustained a rate of 180 units per hour (3 blocks / minute) with ten hour work day for the implementation of each block. It derives these estimates of construction projects, the non-use of modern machinery. This study is not taken into account, however, especially when compared to modern third-world construction projects, logistics and craftsmanship time inherent construction of a building in almost unprecedented magnitude with such precision, among other things, or the use of up to 60-80 tons of stones as a quarry and transported a distance of about 500 miles.
In contrast, a Great Pyramid feasibility study relating to the quarrying of the stone was performed in 1978 by Technical Director Merle Booker of the Indiana Limestone Institute of America. Consisting of 33 quarries, the Institute is considered by many architects to be one of the world’s leading authorities on limestone. Using modern equipment, the study concludes:

“Utilizing the entire Indiana Limestone industry’s facilities as they now stand [for 33 quarries], and figuring on tripling present average production, it would take approximately 27 years to quarry, fabricate and ship the total requirements.”

Booker points out the time study assumes sufficient quantities of railroad cars would be available without delay or downtime during this 27 year period and does not factor in the increasing costs of completing the work.

The entire Giza Plateau is that they were built during the reign of five Pharaohs in less than a hundred years ago. In the hundred years before Giza, beginning with Djoser, from 2687-2667 BC, three massive pyramids built - Step Pyramid of Saqqara (as one of the first Egyptian pyramid), the Bent Pyramid and the Red Pyramid. Also during this period (2686 to 2498 BC) the Wadi Al-Garawi dam, used an estimated 100000 cubic meters of rock and rubble was built.

The values adopted by Egyptologists, the following result: 2,400,000 stones used ÷ ÷ 20 years 365 days per year ÷ 10 hours of work per day ÷ 60 minutes per hour = 0.55 per minute stones gelegt.The entire Giza Plateau is that they were built during the reign of five Pharaohs in less than a hundred years ago. In the hundred years before Giza, beginning with Djoser, from 2687-2667 BC, three massive pyramids built - Step Pyramid of Saqqara (as one of the first Egyptian pyramid), the Bent Pyramid and the Red Pyramid. Also during this period (2686 to 2498 BC) the Wadi Al-Garawi dam, used an estimated 100000 cubic meters of rock and rubble was built.

The values adopted by Egyptologists, the following result: 2400000 stones used ÷ ÷ 20 years 365 days per year ÷ 10 hours of work per day ÷ 60 minutes per hour = 0.55 per minute stones.

Thus no matter how many workers were used or in what configuration, 1.1 blocks on average would have to be put in place every 2 minutes, ten hours a day, 365 days a year for twenty years to complete the Great Pyramid within this time frame. This equation, however, does not take into account among other things the designing, planning, surveying, and leveling the 13 acre site the Great Pyramid sits on.

As Egyptologist Dr. I.E.S. Edwards, former Keeper of Antiquities in the British Museum, said in his book The Pyramids of Egypt; " Cheops, who may have been a megalomaniac, could never, during a reign of about twenty-three years, have erected a building of the size and durability of the Great Pyramid, if technical advances had not enabled his masons to handle stones of very considerable weight and dimensions".

Layout

Papyrus documents and existing cubit measuring rods give us the units of measure used to specify the plan of the pyramid and so it is thought that, at construction, the Great Pyramid was 280 Egyptian royal cubits tall (146.6 meters or 480.9 feet), but with erosion and the theft of its topmost stone (the pyramidion) its current height is 138.8 m. Each base side was 440 royal cubits, with each royal cubit measuring 0.524 m (20.6 inches). Thus, the base was originally almost 231 m on a side and covered approximately 53,000 square metres with a slope angle of 51°50'40" (seked = 5½).

Today each side of the pyramid has an approximate length of about 230.4 meters (755.8 feet). The reduction in size and area of the structure into its current rough-hewn appearance is due to the absence of its original polished casing stones, some of which measured up to two and a half metres thick and weighed more than 15 tonnes.

In the 14th century (1301 AD), a massive earthquake loosened many of the outer casing stones, which were then carted away by Bahri Sultan An-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din al-Hasan in 1356 in order to build mosques and fortresses in nearby Cairo; the stones can still be seen as parts of these structures to this day. Later explorers reported massive piles of rubble at the base of the pyramids left over from the continuing collapse of the casing stones which were subsequently cleared away during continuing excavations of the site. Nevertheless, many of the casing stones around the base of the Great Pyramid can be seen to this day in situ displaying the same workmanship and precision as has been reported for centuries. Regarding this uncanny workmanship, Sir Flinders Petrie remarked; "Merely to place such stones in exact contact would be careful work, but to do so with cement in the joints seems almost impossible: it is to be compared with the finest opticians' work on a scale of acres".

The first precision measurements of the pyramid were done by Sir Flinders Petrie in 1880–82 and published as "The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh". Almost all reports are based on his measurements. Petrie found the pyramid is oriented 4' west of North and the second pyramid is similarly oriented. Petrie also found a different orientation in the core and in the casing (193 cm ± 25 cm ( – 5 ft 16 in ± 10")). Petrie suggested a redetermination of north was made after the construction of the core, but a mistake was made, and the casing was built with a different orientation. This deviation from the north in the core, corresponding to the position of the stars b-Ursae Minoris and z-Ursae Majoris about 3,000 years ago, takes into account the precession of the axis of the Earth. A study by egyptologist Kate Spence shows how the changes in orientation of 8 pyramids corresponds with changes of position of those stars through time. This would date the start of the construction of the pyramid at 2467 BC.

For four thousand years, it was the tallest building in the world until the unmatched 160-meter high tower of the Cathedral of Lincoln was c. 1300th The accuracy of the pyramid processing is such that the four sides of the base have an average error of only 58 mm in length and 1 minute at an angle from a perfect place. The base is horizontal and flat to within 15 mm. The sides of the square are closely aligned with the four directions compass points within 3 minutes, and archery is not based on magnetic north, north, but true. The design dimensions, the survey by Petrie and all those following this, assumed that Ellen was 280 in the amount of approximately 4x440 Ellen originally, and how these proportions equal to 2 x Pi with an accuracy of better than 0.05%, and that was regarded as the conscious design of proportion by Professor Flinders Petrie, IES Edwards and Verner among many other Egyptologists. Other proportions of the King's Chamber supports this conclusion, and the debate continues as the likely methods of implementation, in the light of information regarding 'seked "slope angle techniques and geometric problems associated with pyramids from the Rhind papyrus.

The pyramid was constructed of cut and dressed blocks of limestone, basalt or granite. The core was made mainly of rough blocks of low quality limestone taken from a quarry at the south of Khufu’s Great Pyramid. These blocks weighed from two to four tonnes on average, with the heaviest used at the base of the pyramid. An estimated 2.4 million blocks were used in the construction. High quality limestone was used for the outer casing, with some of the blocks weighing up to 15 tonnes. This limestone came from Tura, about 14 km away on the other side of the Nile. Granite quarried nearly 800 km away in Aswan with blocks weighing as much as 60-80 tonnes, was used for the King's Chamber and relieving chambers.

The total mass of the pyramid is estimated at 5.9 million tonnes with a volume (including an internal hillock) believed to be 2,600,000 cubic metres. The pyramid is the largest in Egypt and the tallest in the world. It is surpassed only by the Great Pyramid of Cholula in Puebla, Mexico, which, although much lower in height, occupies a greater volume.

At completion, the Great Pyramid was surfaced by white 'casing stones' – slant-faced, but flat-topped, blocks of highly polished white limestone. These caused the monument to shine brightly in the sun, making it visible from a considerable distance. Visibly all that remains is the underlying step-pyramid core structure seen today, but several of the casing stones can still be found around the base. The casing stones of the Great Pyramid and Khafre's Pyramid (constructed directly beside it) were cut to such optical precision as to be off true plane over their entire surface area by only 0.5 mm. They were fitted together so perfectly that the tip of a knife cannot be inserted between the joints even to this day.

The passages inside the pyramid are all extremely straight and precise, such that the longest of them, referred to as the descending passage, which is 107 m long, deviates from being truly straight by less than 6 mm, while one of the shorter passages with a length of just over 15 m deviates from being truly straight by a mere 0.5 mm.

The Great Pyramid differs in its internal arrangement of the other pyramids in the area. The larger number of chambers and corridors, the high surface of parts of the work, and the accuracy of all construction. The walls throughout the pyramid are completely bare and uninscribed, but there are inscriptions - or to be precise, graffiti - to have believed that the workers over the stones before they were assembled. All five discharge of the chambers are enrolled. The famous inscription is one of the few mentions that the name of Khufu, he says, "17 years of Khufu's reign." Although alternative theorists have suggested otherwise, given their precarious situation, it is hard to believe that it would have after the construction registered, even Graham Hancock accepted after Dr. Hawass led him to the inscription. Another inscription refers to the "Friends of Khufu," and probably was the name of one of the gangs of workers. Although this does not provide undeniable evidence Khufu was the construction of the Great Pyramid or when construction began, but it seems clear he has no doubt at least partly, in some stage of its construction (or higher repairs to an existing building) during his reign.

There are three known chambers inside the Great Pyramid. These are arranged centrally, on the vertical axis of the pyramid. The lowest chamber (the "unfinished chamber") is cut into the bedrock upon which the pyramid was built. This chamber is the largest of the three, but totally unfinished, only rough-cut into the rock.

The middle chamber, or Queen's Chamber, is the smallest, measuring approximately 5.74 by 5.23 metres, and 4.57 metres in height. Its eastern wall has a large angular doorway or niche, and two narrow shafts, about 20 cm wide, extending from the chamber towards the outer surface of the pyramid. These shafts were explored using a robot, Upuaut 2, created by the German engineer Rudolf Gantenbrink. Upuaut 2 discovered that these shafts were blocked by limestone "doors" with eroded copper "handles". During Pyramids Live: Secret Chambers Revealed, National Geographic filmed the drilling of a small hole in the southern door only to find another larger door behind it. The northern passage (which was harder to navigate due to twists and turns) was also found to have a door. Egyptologist Mark Lehner believes that the Queen's chamber was intended as a serdab—a structure found in several other Egyptian pyramids—and that the niche would have contained a statue of the interred. The Ancient Egyptians believed that the statue would serve as a "back up" vessel for the Ka of the Pharaoh, should the original mummified body be destroyed. The true purpose of the chamber, however, remains uncertain.

At the end of the lengthy series of entrance ways leading into the pyramid interior is the structure's main chamber, the King's Chamber. This chamber was originally 10 x 20 x 11.2 cubits, or about 5.25 m x 10.5 m x 6 m, comprising a double 10x10 cubit square, and a height equal to half the double square's diagonal. This is consistent with then-available geometric methods for determining the Golden Ratio phi, which can be derived from other dimensions of the pyramid, such that if phi had been the design objective, then pi automatically follows to 'square the circle'. Given that pre-hellenistic Egyptians did not have a similar geometric way to determine pi as accurately, it is unlikely that it was preferred over phi as a design objective, especially as phi has been found in other pre-hellenistic Egyptian monuments. (Alexander Badawi. Ancient Egyptian Architectural Design. Berkeley: 1965)

The other main features of the Great Pyramid consist of the Grand Gallery, the sarcophagus found in the King's Chamber, both ascending and descending passages, and the lowest part of the structure mentioned above, what is dubbed the "unfinished chamber".

The Grand Gallery (49 m x 3 m x 11 m) features an ingenious corbel halloed design and several cut "sockets" spaced at regular intervals along the length of each side of its raised base with a "trench" running along its center length at floor level. What purpose these sockets served is unknown. The Red Pyramid of Dashur also exhibits grand galleries of similar design.

The sarcophagus of the King's chamber was hollowed out of a single piece of Red Aswan granite and has been found to be too large to fit through the passageway leading to the King's chamber. Whether the sarcophagus was ever intended to house a body is unknown, but it is too short to accommodate a medium height individual without the bending of the knees (a technique not practised in Egyptian burial) and no lid was ever found.
The "unfinished chamber" lies 90 ft below ground level and is rough-hewn, lacking the precision of the other chambers. This chamber is dismissed by Egyptologists as being nothing more than a simple change in plans in that it was intended to be the original burial chamber but later King Khufu changed his mind wanting it to be higher up in the pyramid.

Two French amateur Egyptologists, Gilles Dormion and Jean-Yves Verd'hurt, claimed in August 2004 that they had discovered a previously unknown chamber inside the pyramid underneath the Queen's Chamber using ground-penetrating radar and architectural analysis. They believe the chamber to be unviolated and could contain the king's remains. They believe the King's Chamber, the chamber generally assumed to be Khufu's original resting place, was not constructed to be a burial chamber.

The King's Chamber contains two "air shafts" that ascend out of the Pyramid and point directly to the star Thuban, and the star Alnitak, in the Orion constellation. The "Queen's" chamber has two air shafts which align to stars as well. These air shafts were supposedly used for ventilation, but given the fact all four were found to be closed off at both ends and only discovered by accident, this idea was eventually abandoned leaving Egyptologists to now conclude they were instead used for ceremonial purposes allowing the Pharaoh's spirit to rise up and out into the stars. Each of these air shafts are about 13 cm in diameter.

Related video from Metacafe and YouTube :

Egyptian Great Pyramid #1 Of Architectural Wonders




This video was taken on the outside the Great Pyramid Khufu and the inside portion of Khafre. The tunnels to enter the pyramid are only 3 ft high so you have to bend over and travel down then up for 2 mins to end the Queen's Chamber.

Are the pyramids made out of concrete, an artificial re-agglomerated limestone? Joseph Davidovits and the Geopolymer Institute crew shows that only few people is able to rapidly and easily produce several tons of pyramid stone blocks.